Monday, September 30, 2019

Student Exploration: Graphing Skills Gizmo

. Student Exploration: Graphing Skills Vocabulary: bar graph, line graph, negative relationship, pie chart, positive relationship, scale, scatter plot, variable Prior Knowledge Questions (Do these BEFORE using the Gizmo. ) 1. Four kinds of graphs are shown in this Gizmo. Circle the kinds you have seen before. [pic][pic] [pic][pic] Bar graph Line graph Pie chart Scatter plot 2. Where have you seen graphs used? Graphs are used everywhere. You can find them in textbooks, newspapers, meetings, schoolroom, everywhere.Basically anywhere someone needs to portray information, visualize data, display trends or patterns, compare two or more things, chart progression/digression, show relationships, etc. 3. Why do you think graphs are useful? Like stated above, graphs are useful to share information with others and put it in a picture-like form. Sometimes it is easier to understand a concept if you can visualize it, which is what a graph does. Gizmo Warm-up: Using the Graphing Skills Gizmo 1.The Graphing Skills Gizmoâ„ ¢ starts with a bar graph on the right and a data set on the left. Practice using the Gizmo by doing the following: †¢ Write a title. †¢ Label the vertical and horizontal axes. †¢ Change the scale of the vertical axis. †¢ Drag the bars up and down. 2. Use the Graph type dropdown list to select other kinds of graphs. Practice with each type of graph: †¢ On the Line graph drag the points up and down. †¢ On the Pie chart change the size of each slice by dragging the edges. †¢ On the Scatter plot drag points from the data table to the graph. Activity A: |Get the Gizmo ready: |[pic] | | | | | |Bar graphs |On the Challenge menu, select Create graph. | | | |On the Graph type menu, select Bar graph. | | | |If necessary, click New until Animal speed data appears. | Goal: Build a bar graph based on a data table. 1. Create graph: A bar graph is useful for comparing things, such as how fast animals can run. †¢ Write a title f or the graph. (Look at the title of the data table for a suggestion. ) †¢ Label the horizontal axis and the vertical axis. †¢ Pick what you think is the best choice for a vertical axis scale. †¢ Drag each bar to match the data in the table. Do your best to estimate heights. 2. Check your work: Click Check to see how well you did. A. What was your accuracy score? Over 90 is excellent. ) Accuracy score is 100. B. What vertical scale did you choose? (In other words, how much does each horizontal line on the graph represent? ) Each line on the graph represents 20 km/h. 3. Revise: Click Show value on mouseover. Move the cursor over each bar to see its value. Adjust each bar and click Check until the accuracy score is 100. To show your work, click the screenshot camera at upper left. Paste the screenshot into a blank document. 4. Interpret: Which of these animals is fastest? Cheetah Slowest? Human . Apply: Click New and make the next bar graph. Adjust the scale if needed an d don’t forget to make a title and label each axis. Click Check to see your accuracy. A. What country has the highest life expectancy? The lowest? Country with the highest life expectancy is Andorra. Country with the lowest is Zambia. B. Does anything about the graph surprise you? I hoped that the USA would have the highest life expectancy, but that was not the case. (Too many McDonald’s to blame. ) 6. Challenge yourself: Hold a contest with your classmates.Turn off the Show value on mouseover checkbox and click New. Who can create the most accurate bar graph? |Activity B: |Get the Gizmo ready: |[pic] | | | | | |Line graphs and pie charts |Under Graph type select Line graph. | | | |If necessary, click New until Temperature data appears. | Goal: Build a line graph and a pie chart. Line graphs 1. Create graph: Line graphs are often used to show how something changes over time. Write a title and label the axes. Adjust the vertical scale if needed. Create the line graph b y dragging the points up and down. 2. Check your work: Click Check. What was your accuracy score? Accuracy score is 100. 3. Revise: Turn on Show values on mouseover and adjust the graph until your score is 100. Take a screenshot of your graph and paste it into a document. 4.Interpret: Which day was hottest? Wednesday Which day was coolest? Sunday 5. Apply: Try additional line graphs until you are comfortable making this type of graph. Discuss the most interesting graphs with your teacher and classmates. Pie charts 6. Create graph: Pie charts are used to show proportional data. Under Graph type select Pie chart. Make sure that Show values and labels is checked. Write a title for the pie chart and drag the pie pieces to match the data table. 7. Check your work: Click Check. Revise your pie chart if necessary.When the pie chart is correct, paste a screenshot of the chart into your document. 8. Interpret: What were the most popular pies? Apple 9. Apply: Try additional pie charts until y ou are comfortable with this type of graph. For a real challenge, try to make a pie chart with the Show values and labels checkbox turned off. 10. Extend your thinking: The Gizmo also allows you to create a data table from a graph. Under Challenge select Create table. Write a title for the table and then fill in each empty box based on the graph. Click Check to check your accuracy. Activity C: |Get the Gizmo ready: |[pic] | | | | | |Scatter plots |Under Challenge select Create graph. | | | |Under Graph type select Scatter plot. | | | |If necessary, click New until Studying and score data appears. | Goal: Create a scatter plot. 1. Create graph: Scatter plots are used to see if one variable is related to another. Each point on a scatter plot has two values. For example, if Robert studied for 40 minutes and got a quiz score of 98, Robert’s point would be placed at (40, 98) on the graph. (You can think of that as â€Å"over 40, up 98. †) To make a scatter plot, do the fo llowing: †¢ Write a title for the graph. †¢ Label the horizontal axis based on the second column of the data table, and the vertical axis based on the third column of the data table.Include units in each label. †¢ Adjust the horizontal and vertical axis scales if needed. †¢ Drag each point to match the data. 2. Check your work: Click Check. What was your accuracy score? Accuracy score is 100. 3. Revise: Turn on Show values on mouseover and adjust the graph until your score is 100. Adjust the axis scales if necessary. Paste a screenshot of your graph into a document. 4. Interpret: Based on this graph, will studying help you do well on a test? Explain. Yes! The longer a student studied, the higher his/her test score was. 5. Extend your thinking: The â€Å"Studying vs.Score† scatter plot shows an example of a positive relationship—as one variable increases, so does the other. The points in this type of scatter plot tend to go â€Å"uphill† from left to right. A negative relationship is the opposite—as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. These types of scatter plots go â€Å"downhill† from left to right. A. Which graphs in the Gizmo show a positive relationship? In the â€Å"Income versus Education† graph, as one’s education improved and increased, the income they earned also increased. With the â€Å"Study and Score Evaluation†, when one’s study time increased, the score also correlated with an increase.With the â€Å"Growth Over Time† graph, there is a positive relationship since as one person increases in age, the height also increases. B. Which graphs in the Gizmo show a negative relationship? The only graph I could find which remotely represented this was the Temperature Data Graph. As progression increased through the week and it got closer to the weekend, the temperature decreased. Although not demonstrated in the Gizmo, a perfect example of a negativ e relationship would be as the elevation above sea level rises, the temperature decreases. ———————– [pic]

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Why Pakistani People Have Lost a Sense of Nationality

Identity may be defined as a distinctive characteristic of an individual or a particular group of individuals. For one’s survival in this world it is very crucial to maintain his identity. If we expand the criterion of ‘identity’ to national level it is of utmost importance because it is nation’s identity which distinguishes its people from the rest of the world. The importance of national Identity can be better analyzed by the fact that it is the base of all the policies, i. e. domestic and foreign policy and hence the social. economic cultural and ethical development of any country partly depends upon its national identity. In other words actions of a nation are determined by its identity. As far as Pakistan’s identity is concerned, it may be divided into three phases, i. e. pre-partition, post partition and present day. The term ‘identity crisis’ is used to denote a particular situation where by an individual, group of individuals or a nation faces conflicts regarding its identity. These conflicts occur when one’s ideological basis and prevailing circumstances contradict in such a way that the prevailing circumstances dominate the ideological basis. . With reference to Pakistan the history of ‘identity crisis’ have its roots in the late Mughal dynasty. The comfort-loving attitude of the rulers, bloodsheds for the throne, abandoned faith, mismanagement of domestic economic and political matters, absence of updated foreign developments and other moral, ethical and social weaknesses were the major forces which contributed in the identity crisis of the Muslims of South Asia. In pre partition era where by Muslims of south Asia have lost their regime and British rule tighten the span of their social , cultural and political life. Actually they lost their rule just because of the ‘lost identity’. After a half century of submissive life they began to find the ‘lost identity’ and they succeeded. The second phase of identity crisis began very after the inception of Pakistan. The Shia/Sunni crisis at the time of partition was the first of all. But luckily at that time, the crisis was pragmatically resolved by Quaid-e-Azam, so it was buried in a hatchet at that time but later on it burst up from different grounds. The second case of identity crisis in the chronology is the crisis of East and West Pakistan. At the time of inception, Pakistan inherited East and West Pakistan with one and four provinces respectively. Population of East Pakistan alone was more than that of the total population of the four provinces of West Pakistan. The seeds of identity crisis were sown with the ‘language controversy’, where by Urdu was declared as the national language of Pakistan while Urdu was the influencing language only in West Pakistan. This language controversy and some other strategies which lead to the deprived feelings among the natives of East Pakistan and the ultimate consequence was an identity crisis in the form of separation of East Pakistan in 1971. Not only the separation of East Pakistan but, a variety of identity crisis cases stood in the post partition era. The list contains delayed constitutional development, unstable political conditions (due to personal likes and dislikes and lust of power), Social injustice and negative image of Pakistan on international screen. Constitution is the base of any new born state but in case of Pakistan this base couldn’t be established even after about a decade of the inception of Pakistan. So when there was no base for people, the process of identity development started very late. Latterly the termination of 1956’s and 1962’s constitutions fulfilled the remaining part of delayed identity development. All these factors further participated in corruption, national disharmony, rigid attitudes, misconceptions about the religion (partly the role played by ‘mullas’), blind practices on unnecessary customs and a list of moral dilemmas. The identity crisis after the partition threw Pakistan in an ignominious status both at domestic and at international arena. Domestically we couldn’t achieve the social status which we’ve dreamt during the Pakistan movement. Economically we stood at the back end of the global economic stage. And above all we were entitled as a ‘terrorist state’ due to some mismanaged and scattered groups. Even some of them really didn’t have the basic knowledge of their ideological agenda. In present day Pakistan, the situation is more hazardous than that of one discussed in the previous phase. Today’s identity crisis is ‘giant’ in nature aiming to nip our ideology form the bud. Now with changing global environment and with the changing role of Pakistan at international level, the nature of identity crisis has become more complex. The present day crisis may be classified as political, social religious and economic identity crisis. The social and religious crisis work in collaboration. On the religious part, the extremist group has developed misconceptions about the religion. On the other hand the society is facing the ‘cultural war’ through different media. In such a situation the nation, preferably the youth has contradictions with religious implications which is making them unaware of their ideological basis. In the second step the attractive evil (the weapon of cultural war) is becoming dominant. So the nation’s ideological basis is being deployed by the prevailing circumstances, creating identity crisis. In this case we can’t blame the young mind (as he’s not getting the proper guideline and he has not been trained in such a way that he can find the roots the purpose of his existence, secondly the so called knowledge of religion he gets is not authentic). The second type of present day identity crisis in Pakistan is political in nature. In fact our political system has always been ruled by reigns in hands of few influencing groups. No such political platforms were built for the coming generations, to ensure their participation in national or international affairs. It is very necessary to train the youth for the participation in national affairs because they are the people who have to run the country in the future. Unluckily our youth didn’t get any such training at any stage of our 59 years history. The ultimate result was that, the administrators belonged to a specific group, making others so annoyed that others even don’t care to have a look at the mismanagement. This imbalance in the political infrastructure restricted the educated youth to participate in the national policies and ultimately the process of policy making enjoyed the influence of un-educated and narrow minded policy makers, who couldn’t devise the identity goals of the nation till yet. At international political arena we are still facing the vicious circle of ‘terrorism’. Even our government ensured Pakistan’s contribution in the ‘war against terrorism’, but being an Islamic state we become the suspect of any international terrorist act. Here the policy of state is ambiguous, which aims to satisfy the western world but the integration of Muslim world is not to be seen any where. In my opinion we don’t know that where we are standing right now, where we have to go and where we are going? On the part of economy, no doubt our economy grew with in last half decade but only at macro level. The poor is still standing on the place where he was a decade ago. Increasing Unemployment, inflation, and poverty etc are not only contributing in social imbalances but because of these factors, a common man is not able to find the basis of his identity. The identity of a nation is its image, and our image today is ‘a tree whose roots have been cut’. This situation is actually showing our lost identity. We have become much concerned about our outer look but we have forgotten the basis on which we have to develop our inner self. If this process keeps on going with the same velocity, the time is not far when the existence of our identity will vanish. It is very crucial to have a breach of the peace against identity crisis. In this regard the most important step is identity education. The identity education should be provided at educational institutions as well as in temporarily organized seminars (seminars should be accessible for general public). Identity education will not work till we present a difference between different cultures. Media censorship should also be there in order to lessen the possible damages of cultural war. Media should also spread the knowledge of values among the common men. And last but not least we all should play our part to improve our religious image at international level. In this connection we can spread the true essence of our religion which is peace.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Air Pollution and Global Warming on Aboriginals - Free Samples

Climate change is one of the issues germinated through the diabolical policy problem around the world. Rapid growth of the industries and the capital boom in the world market has leading to deterioration in the air pollution, which ultimately causing global warming (Knibbs and Sly 2014). One of the most threatened groups of indigenous population lives in Australia who is seemed to be suffering from the adverse effect of the climate change (Scarano and Ceotto 2015). Under this stringent condition of the aboriginals around the world, this report is aimed to consider the effect of the air pollution and the global warming on the indigenous population of the Australian population. According to the intergovernmental Panel on Climate change’s Third Assessment Report (TAR) it has been found that the Australian aboriginals are one of the two most threatened indigenous groups in the world that has been suffering heavily due to the adverse effect of the climate change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2015). Now, the irony is that, there have been plenty of researches on the environment and development issues in Australia during last thirteen years; however most of them are concerned about the climate change laws of Australia other than the northern territories and fragmented in nature. Previous researches have failed to provide any long term engagement program between the community and government, which can assess the climate change and global warming effect on the Australian aboriginals (Race et al. 2016). Thus, this research is aimed to assess the effect of air pollution and global warming on the aboriginal of Australia through comparative analysi s of population living in northern region of the country with the non indigenous population of Australia. Over the time various foreign communities has came to the Australia and captured the land of the aboriginal people during the seventeenth century (Gilbert 2016). Since then, indigenous people have shifted to the northern territory of Australian and non indigenous population has exploited the country’s natural resource to a great extent leading to air pollution and global warming. According to Flora (2018), there has been various researches regarding the challenges and issues faced by the non indigenous population due to air pollution and global warming, however very few has addressed the case of indigenous population. There are more than 100,000 Australian indigenous people who presently live in remote areas of the country, whose majority section can be found in the Northern territory of the Australia and according to the TAR report their health condition and resource availability is getting deteriorated day by day (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2015). Under this s cenario, this research is essential for assessing the magnitude of the effect of air pollution and global warming from the point of view of the Australian indigenous population, The potential threat to the existence of aboriginal peoples is at stake due to the institutional and legal barriers raised through the various governmental programs regarding the environment and development. Under the purview of the situation of the Australian indigenous populations, this research is aimed to discuss the effect of air pollution and global warming on the aboriginal population of Australia. Flora, C.B., 2018.  Rural communities: Legacy+ change. Routledge. Gilbert, J., 2016.  Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights under International Law. Brill. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2015.  Climate change 2014: mitigation of climate change  (Vol. 3). Cambridge University Press. Knibbs, L.D. and Sly, P.D., 2014. Indigenous health and environmental risk factors: an Australian problem with global analogues?.  Global health action,  7(1), p.23766. Race, D., Mathew, S., Campbell, M. and Hampton, K., 2016. Understanding climate adaptation investments for communities living in desert Australia: experiences of indigenous communities.  Climatic Change,  139(3-4), pp.461-475. Scarano, F.R. and Ceotto, P., 2015. Brazilian Atlantic forest: impact, vulnerability, and adaptation to climate change.  Biodiversity and Conservation,  24(9), pp.2319-2331 Green, D. and Minchin, L., 2014. Living on climate-changed country: Indigenous health, well-being and climate change in remote Australian communities.  EcoHealth,  11(2), pp.263-272. Hugo, G. and Wall, J., 2015. Climate change and environmental influences on australia’s population distribution.  Health of People, Places and Planet: Reflections based on Tony McMichael’s four decades of contribution to epidemiological understanding, p.177. Maru, Y.T., Race, D., Sparrow, A., Mathew, S. and Chewings, V., 2015. Adaptation as a trigger for transformation pathways in remote Indigenous communities. In  Innovation in the Rangelands, Australian Rangeland Society 18th Biennial Conference. Schwerdtle, P., Bowen, K. and McMichael, C., 2018. The health impacts of climate-related migration.  BMC medicine,  16(1), p.1. Spencer, B., Lawler, J., Lowe, C., Thompson, L., Hinckley, T., Kim, S.H., Bolton, S., Meschke, S., Olden, J.D. and Voss, J., 2017. Case studies in co-benefits approaches to climate change mitigation and adaptation.  Journal of environmental planning and management,  60(4), pp.647-667.

Friday, September 27, 2019

Western European superiority - better than Indians, the Chinese and Term Paper

Western European superiority - better than Indians, the Chinese and European neighbors- imperialist conquests and World War I - Term Paper Example The western part involved the N.E part of Belgium and France, whilst Netherlands opted to remain neutral throughout the war, and the British Empire as well, battling out with the then Prussia (Perry, et al 365). Scholars indicate that Western Europe forged ahead of other parts of Europe, and the world, including Asia. The western front had a b added advantage over the other parts as the part was better off in terms of use of artillery, firearms, armed ships and fortifications (Perry, et al 365). By the year 1800, the western front had managed to conquer numerous states as well as control major trade routes in Asia, particularly taking over Americans. Western Europe was well placed before the 1800, as opposed to China, Japan and the Ottoman Empire, as these countries had not had the expertise to use firearms to their advantage and the gun power technology (Bulliet, et al 268). The Ottoman cannons are indicated to be of poor quality and had to be re-melted for use (Bulliet , et al 268) . The military weapons for instance in Vietnam by 1572, were not worth re-using (Bulliet, et al 743). This fact places the Western empire at a better place than her counterparts, to an extent that the empire was exporting weapons to the Ottoman. In the case of Asia, Adas indicates that Asia was no exceptional, as they hired Western European militants to help them in the tactics of gun making and military organization (137). Among these military expertises include Napoleonic officers and the gun founders of the time (Perry et al 366). This is a clear evidence of the Western Front superiority that they were enjoying at the time- early 1800s. Despite the fact that China was more economically able as contrasted to the Western Front, its military prowess placed her at a better stance over other states (Adas 138). Though, at a later stage other countries outside the Western Empire began to develop in terms of military technology, for instance Japan and the volley fire, all these tactics a ccording to Selin lagged behind that of Western Front (2276). The military competition caused a lot of tension and instability in Europe. Adas also indicates that the able powers also become competitive economically (133). The ‘military able’ countries sustained productivity; thus, competition in Europe. Adas indicates that India joined in the arms race, and wanted to adopt the modern and sophisticated weapons and military tactics. This competition for arms led to clear warfare in the world, as all countries wanted to be prepared to deal with both local and foreign rivals (165). In a nutshell, one would argue that war was visualized as the path to prowess and prowess; thus, almost all countries globally flexed their muscles towards the arms race. Almost all leaders wanted to be likened to kings of military ability, notable example Louis XIV at Versailles, all in the battle to join in a ‘royal sport’ –war (Louis-XIV & Sonnino 173). Western Europe conq uered small states into her territory, and was continually on the move to outdo their military counterparts. Adas indicates that the efforts by Western Europe to advance in military technology, the move led to countries funding their armies, navies, all in an endeavor to improve it logistics and military techniques (134). Since the move to upgrade their military technique by various states did not last a day, Western Europe retained her position at the top of the world’s military league. However, it is important to note that Western Europeans considered themselves better than Indians, the Chinese and European neighbors, as the Western Empire did not face some of the challenges that the other countries were facing.

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Riordan Corporate Compliance Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Riordan Corporate Compliance Plan - Essay Example Riordan attracts customers from various industries including, electronic companies, household item producers, defense, bottlers, aircraft, and even software companies. The entire vendor management and human resource management systems that Riordan uses in its various branches in the United States are with an Oracle system. The Vendor management and the HR management system are available on the Riordan website and almost all the processes are done including, placing the orders, tracking the order, accepting delivery, and process management. The management system automatically delivers e-mails to the relevant persons once a transaction gets generated through the e-mail engine. The Riordan Corporate Compliance should be created and approved by the senior management or Board of the company and stick to the regulations that may be applicable in various states the company is functioning. Third, the Compliance plan should also give importance to monitoring and auditing the system and ensuri ng that enforcement and breaches are addressed appropriately. In such a manner, the legal compliance plan should meet the legal standards and be in line with the legislations of that particular nation. Legal Compliance Plan Introduction Riordan Production is a manufacturing and productions company concerned with the manufacture of plastics, polymers, electrical appliances, and household appliances. It will not only sell the appliances to other businesses but also to the end consumer. Initially, Riordan was a company that supplied other companies, and it has been recently until which Riordan has entered the relationship sector. Within the company, Riordan consider meeting certain legal and ethical obligation concerned with business and comply with the standard business practice. The legal compliance document of Riordan will not only ensure that the ethical and legal obligation of the company and the manner in which it functions is known to others. This also ensure that the various st akeholders concerned, including employees, other businesses, companies, partners, and the government, are aware of these standards and the manner in which the company functions. The Company compliance plan will chalk out the legal and the ethical commitments and the set of standards that has to be followed during the business practices. The important aspects of corporate compliance are †¢ Enterprise liability †¢ Tangible property and intangible property (intellectual property) †¢ Governance principles of regulatory compliance requirements †¢ The specific international laws This compliance plan created by the company senior management and approved by the Management Board of Riordan Productions. It sets the basic framework and the manner in which the business is conducted. It shall be binding on the company management, employees, contractors, and the third parties who do business with Riordan Productions. The compliance plan will also be binding on the managers and the supervisors. Some of the important set of functions includes Standard policies and guidelines to be adhered to concerned employee management, risk identification, risk management, evaluation, monitoring, implementing corrective processes, and managing the property/assets. Legal Standards Riordan Productions is a manufacturing hub and would be appointing, supporting, and using the services of the human

A Midsummer Night's Dream, Death of a Salesman Essay

A Midsummer Night's Dream, Death of a Salesman - Essay Example Abandonment is related to things we can not see because we have left them or they have somehow, left on their own. By calling these things more important than others which have not gone away, the author tends to favor the abandonment right at the outset, and the audience’s perceptions are modified accordingly. Fix has done this in the start of the novel in order to make sure that the audience follows her exactly in the same footsteps so that both the author and the audience reach the same conclusion by the end of the novel. In Willy’s life, there is a constant and uninterrupted shift from one abandonment to another. Every time this happens, the successive abandonment causes even more despair to rise in Willy’s heart than the preceding abandonment. The author has coherently constructed this argument by making the audience aware of the news of death of Willy’s father at an age when Ben and Willy are both too young and are not earning anything. When Ben and W illy’s father dies, the children are left with no tangible or intangible asset whatsoever. After some time, Ben resolves to leave for Alaska and go away from Willy who is lost in the American Dream vision. As a result of numerous unfortunate events congested in the early phase of his life, Willy catches a phobia of abandonment.

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Hum M3 Jak Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Hum M3 Jak - Essay Example Values are determined by how someone estimates himself or herself – the level of one’s self-esteem and pleasure. According to Branden, moral values guide people towards the achievement of self-esteem and pleasure (Branden 32). Therefore, psychotherapists should emphasize on moral values to improve the self-esteem of their patients. Values relate to emotions because they are determined by how we think about ourselves, or judge ourselves. On the values scale, I scored medium importance in terms of power and achievement (4.2 and 4.7 out of 7 respectively). My score in terms of Hedonism, self-direction, universalism and benevolence was of high importance. This shows that I have above average value-judgment. In terms of cognitive empathy, I scored 23 out of 37, showing a moderate perspective taking. My score in terms of emotional empathy is 24 out of 37, indicating moderate emotional empathy. Lastly, the dispositional mood scale recorded a score of 4.0 out of 5. This indicates a high positive energy and affectivity as well as high

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Substance abuse counseling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Substance abuse counseling - Essay Example The Occupational Outlook Handbook 2010-2011 edition stated that ‘persons interested in counseling should have a strong desire to help others and should be able to inspire respect, trust and confidence.’ This description would eliminate persons who are not people oriented or those who tend to be intrinsic or selfish in their desires. Apart from the requirements stated in the handbook it takes someone who possesses a strong character, a strong will and one who is able to separate himself from the problems of his client yet is caring enough to use all the facilities at his disposal in the search for a solution. The counselor should someone with a genuine interest in persons having this type of mental order. A person without this strong conviction will easily become frustrated in the face of challenges and problems associated with substance abuse counseling. The situations are often challenging so a counselor should be someone with great courage, having excellent interpersonal skills. One of the qualifications as outlined in the handbook is that a counselor must possess high physical and emotional energy. This is needed to deal effectively with the stressful cases and situations that are present on a regular basis. In some instances the counselor may work with groups or families but for the most part the job involves situations where they have to perform their tasks on an individual basis. The counselor has to be someone who has the ability to work independently or also work as a team. He should be a good listener and someone that has good rapport. He or she also has to be patient and develop measures of avoiding confrontation that can disrupt the counseling process. The counselor also has to adhere to the code of ethics. The American Counseling Association (ACA) Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice provide guidelines for counselors enabling them to make decisions that will uphold a high level of professionalism and ethical

Monday, September 23, 2019

Transgender Children Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Transgender Children - Research Paper Example They are transgendered children† ABC News, 2007 The terms ‘sex’ and /or ‘gender’ are used loosely and interchangeably, in today’s society, with respect to describing an individual’s gender, despite the fact that both the words have a completely different meaning, which is distinct from each other. The word ‘sex’ refers to the biological categorization of an individual into ‘male’ or ‘female’ gender, based on their reproductive organs. Gender on the other hand, is more of a social construct, and is a term coined and used by the society to classify and describe an individual typically ‘male’ or ‘female’, based on social gender descriptions of the two (Morrow & Messinger, 2006). One of the most common misconceptions with regard to the definition of the term ‘gender’ as applied by the society, refers to the fact that it is an integral part of our existence and ident ities, and that it assigns social status to newly born, at the time of their birth. The society as well as our surrounding environment such as parents, plays a key role in shaping and influencing our attitudes towards what constitute gender, and inculcate socially acceptable gender norms, by interactions with the children and is reflected in the type of toys or clothes bought for the male and the female child. Such behavior on the part of the child’s immediate environment tends to teach the ‘appropriate’ and acceptable manner of leading their lives, and teaches them to behave in a ‘gender appropriate’ manner. The term ‘transgender’ as applied in contemporary society, is an umbrella term which is used to describe individuals with gender identity issues, and display a non-conformist behavior / attitude with regard to the same, i.e., an individual, biologically born as a male tends to behave as a female trapped in a male’s body and v ice versa (Morrow & Messinger, 2006). The transgender children often insist of being born in the ‘wrong body’ (ABC News, 2007). Research questions: The key research questions addressed as a part of this study include: What does it mean to be transgendered? What are the key causes behind such gender identity issues? Are there any cures for the same? But most of all this study aims to emphasize the gravity of the issue, and delve further into the complex social and psychological implications of transexualism and its impact on the children and those around them. In order to seek answers for the above listed questions, a qualitative research method - secondary data analysis, is used, whereby data from academic and clinical journals, books, and other primary resources such as government websites and newspapers are used. 2. Literature review 2.1. Understanding Transgender Children: The term 'Transgender' refers to people who have serious gender identity issues and have diffic ulty associating and correlating with the biological sex they are born with. Such individuals do not suffer from any genetic abnormalities (Lee & Houk, 2006). Transgender children suffer from gender identity issues wherein the boys are often seen more comfortable with associating themselves with girls, dress like them and even play with dolls, display stereotypical feminine traits and vice versa (Brill & Pepper 2008). Research indicates that children normally begin to develop gender identity around the age of three years (Cohen-Hettenis & Arrindell, 1990. This theory holds true even in case of transgender child

Sunday, September 22, 2019

The Glass Cliff Essay Example for Free

The Glass Cliff Essay Ibarra et al suggest that high-potential women often miss out on sponsorship, an element of mentoring that increases the incidence and speed of candidates’ promotion to upper management positions. Bruckmuller and Branscombe illustrate in their article, The Glass Cliff, a gender partiality that exists when companies look to hire a new executive. Companies with predominantly male executives and in stable financial states are more likely to hire another male executive, while a tanking company with male executives will favor the female candidate. Both articles contribute evidence to further back the claim that women receive fewer promotional opportunities than men and identify how our common assumptions about gender and leadership impede our movement towards gender equality. However, neither article does well to disarm the biased reader, consequently placing the transmission of an invaluable message at risk. If the authors’ underlying purpose for writing these articles is to promote equal opportunity at all organizational levels as a means to optimize the utility of available human resources, they do not effectively communicate their message. At first glance, it appears that these articles intend to increase awareness of the additional roadblocks women face on their way to executive suites. Numbers, experiments, and thorough analysis confirm that this is so. I have no doubt that a young ambitious female professional would likely feel outraged at the sight of these figures and feel compelled to join the crusade. However, a man who does not see the benefits of women in management or a woman who does not aspire to be a manager might perceive these articles as personal grievances and greet them with discord. Such an individual might contest that since every author is female, the articles are therefore biased and the integrity of the articles is compromised. In this instance, the message and potential progress towards equal opportunity is lost. To avoid this predicament, I might suggest presenting evidence that would appeal to male executives, as they occupy the majority of the upper echelon positions and thus, possess the mos t power to resist or catalyze change. Perhaps a worthy initiative would be to increase these managers awareness of the similarity–attraction principle, which explains how when given the opportunity to select another member to interact within a group, individuals have a proclivity to select persons who are similar to themselves (i.e. male). The argument could go on to explain to managers how such behavior can detrimentally serve a management team by inhibiting heterogeneity, which research suggests facilitates long-term team performance (Horwitz, 2007). Whether this is a sound argument is debatable, but this topic is much less likely to be met with resistance simply due to the nature of the subject matter. Every executive agrees that long-term team performance is a worthy pursuit. In this scenario, both parties understand the value of the message and have potential to mutually benefit from it. References Horwitz, Sujin K., and Irwin B. Horwitz. The effects of team diversity on team outcomes: A meta-analytic review of team demography. Journal of management 33.6 (2007): 987-1015.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Concepts and Theories of Auditing

Concepts and Theories of Auditing Auditing has been present for years in different stage of development following the evolution of accounting. Starting since the epoch when the records were approved after a public reading, to the era when governments officials were measured by their honesty. Followed by the times of the industrial revolution were the ownership of companies started separating from management; when owners required more protection of their investments increasing the use of auditors, consequently; to the times were an auditor was always searching for frauds or errors (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 7) and then to ascertain the actual financial condition and earnings of an enterprise (Montgomery, 1913, p. 9). However, the acceptance of auditing as an academic discipline is not old and just after the development of different concepts and techniques within the audit model such as the use of sampling, the study of the internal control environment, and the risk assessment, is when more focus to the theoretical and conceptual framework of auditing it is been devoted. Andrew Sayer (1992) discussed the concept of theories in social science from the perspective of theory as an ordering-framework (p. 50), indicating that theory allows the use of the observed data and their relationships to predict and explain empirical events. Additionally Cooper and Schindler (1998) define theory as a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts) (p. 47). Another concept is expressed by Singleton and Straits (2005) explaining theory as a set of interconnected propositions (p. 19). The success in the explanations or predictions of any phenomena depends on the level that the theory holds and do not fails fitting in the situation, and the challenge is to perfect the process of matching theory and fact (Cooper and Schindler (1998). Different authors have started the development of the audit theory such as Mautz and Sharaf (1961) with their publication titled The Philosophy of Auditing; also Tom Lee (1986) with his approach in the book Company Auditing, and later David Flint (1988) with his book Philosophy and principles of auditing (as cited in Moizer, 1989). The auditing analysis in this demonstration will be framed on the postulates proposed by David Flint (1988) as a foundation for the theory of auditing. Flint (1988) stated that there is a matter of public accountability demanding an independent audit for its demonstration with clear definition and intention, based on evidence that only skilled auditors gather, measure it, and compare it against the standards, which generates economic or social benefit (as cited in Moizer, 1989). Following are the seven postulates or assumptions stated by Flint (1988): There is a relationship of accountability or a situation of public accountability. Accountability cannot be demonstrated without an audit. An audit requires independence and freedom. The subject matter of audit is susceptible to verification by evidence. Auditors are skilled judges who are able to measure and compare actual performance against standards of accountability. The meaning, significance, and intention of statements to be audited must be clear. An audit produces an economic or social benefit. (Flink, 1989) Whenever an economic relationship exists one of the parties owe a duty of an acceptable accountability, consequently audits are voluntary, imposed for the health of the relationship. There are also audit related to the interest of the public in matters of the society institutions. As expressed by Whittington and Pany (2004) dependable information is essential to the very existence of our society (p. 1). They explained the social need for audit and professionals who can attest that the reported information is fair respect to the reality for purpose of allocating resources for the production of services and goods based on reliable financial information (p. 1). Normally the financial and economic aspects of the related subject matter are complex, not physically accessible, or have the level of significance that necessary demand an audit to accept the accountability. No all investors or stakeholders of an entity understand the complexity of the business and financial environment, or are near to the place were their resources are to oversee for accountability. The credibility of the information is important and the preferable form of obtaining credible information to rely on is by using independent auditors to perform an audit. That reduce the business risk that relates to the permanence and profits of the company, and the information risk that the financial information used to make a decision is materially misstated (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 6). Therefore, if the audit must add credibility it must be performed independently and without bias or prejudice. Audit is subject to verification and that is possible only if sufficient evidential matter of the audit is gathered. Additionally, some standards of accountability and performance need to be in place to easy the auditors measurement. Therefore, the parties involved must agree on their acceptable standards. The auditing community has set some professional guidance as a form of general accepted practiced standards. For an audit to add value to the financial information, the purpose of the information should be clear, and the findings effectively communicated. The audit should be performed only when its benefits weigh more than the costs. As a consequence auditors should be aware of the cost of collecting evidence especially in situation were the risk is high. The practice of auditing auditors agree on an attest engagement in which they issue or does issue an examination, a review, or an agreed-upon procedures report on subject matter or an assertion about subject matter that is the responsibility of another party (e.g., management) (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 2). In an examination of financial statement, referred to as an audit the standards may be the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), and the auditors collect sufficient evidence to attest about how fair is the information in the financial statement respect to the GAAP. However, here are three types of audits: (a) audits of financial statements, (b) compliance audits, and (c) operational audits. Financial audits determine if the statements were prepared according with GAAP. Compliance audit verifies if the company had complies with law, regulations or polices and procedures. Finally, operational audits review the effectiveness and efficiency of particular unit of an organization (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 11). Relative to the public accounting standards, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) has developed the framework for the general accepted auditing standards (GAAS), which are the fundamentals principles of independent auditing in the U. S. The framework is divided in three major areas that are summarized as follow: General standards. A professional possessing adequate technical training and proficiency, independent in mental attitude and free from bias and with professional care planning and performing diligently, perform the audit. Standards of field work. The audit should be adequate planned and the staff properly supervised. Auditor should acquire sufficient understanding of the internal control environment to be able to determine the weak areas, and gather sufficient competent evidence to support their conclusions. Standards of reporting. The final report should state if the statements are consistent with GAAP and if necessary indicate those circumstances departing from GAAP, include adequate informative disclosure, and includes the opinion of the auditors about the financial statements. Likewise, the AICPA has issued a series of auditing standards on auditing procedure, auditing and accounting guides, and auditing statements of position, to help auditor in the fulfillment of their responsibility of detecting misstatement (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 34-35). Auditing involve a serious processes that expose auditors to a different situations in which they need to exercise professional ethics. Those moral principles and values leading decisions and actions of the profession of auditing are provided by the AICPA in the Code of Professional Conduct, and by the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) Code of Ethics. Normally auditors are involved in a decision process of ethical dimension. CPAs decisions during performing their duties can affect thousands of investors and their resources; therefore, they need to measure the implication of their decisions. Additionally, as Whittington and Pany (2004) indicated, what is considered unethical in a particular society is not specifically prohibited (p. 11), giving relevance and support to the need for the establishment of those principles and values in the accounting and auditing profession. The public accounting, as well as the rest of professions, has the following characteristics: (a) their responsibility to serve the public with independence and due care with fairness and free from bias. (b) Involves a complex body of knowledge that includes different authoritative pronouncements of standards and principles governing the profession and the financial reports due to the need of technical competency. (c) Has establishes some standard of admission to the profession that each CPA is required to meet. In addition (d), need public confidence to be successful (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 61-62). The AICPA leads public accountants to recognize their responsibility to the public in general, to their clients, and to the profession. The section one of the code of conduct describes the organization and CPAs principles of responsibilities, public interest, integrity, objectivity and independence, due care, and scope and nature of services. The section two depicts the institutes rules that are compounded by the following: independence, integrity and objectivity, general standards, compliance with standards, accounting principles, confidential client information, contingent fees, acts discreditable, advertising and other forms of solicitation, commissions and referral fees, and form of organization and name (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 63-83). Similarly, the IIA has their own code of ethics divided in three main sections, an introductory section, principles, and rules of conduct. Their principles apply to the profession and practice of the internal auditing, and include integrity, objectivity confidentiality, and competency. The IIA rules on conduct include integrity, objectivity, confidentiality, and competency (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 83-84). The IIA is the organization that provides the standards for the professional practice of internal auditing. As it can be deduced from the previous summaries, both institutes the IACPA and the IIA require high level of self-discipline and commitment to a honorable professional behavior, integrating similar principles of integrity, objectivity, and competence. Their rules differ in the fact that internal auditors perform internally; public accountants attest on the financial statements to the company as outsiders performing professionally to honor the public trust. However, the concept of independence is common to both ramification of auditing because it refers to the ability to maintain and objective and impartial mental attitude (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 66), and without of conflict of interest. After the previous review of the auditing theory and how CPAs support it with a professional framework that includes principles, ethical codes, and general accepted standards for the auditing practice, the following section depicts a discussion of audit procedures as well as an introduction of important concepts that are fundamental part of the theory of auditing and the auditing practice. The Audit Procedures The ultimate product after the performance of an audit is the issuance of a report indicating if the financial statements audited comply with GAAP. Sufficient evidence must support the audit report and such evidence is gathered and documented by exercising rigorous procedures that, among other important goals, help the auditors in assessing the risk of misstatement. According to Whittington and Pany (2004), audit procedures involve: (a) the understanding of the client, the business, and industry to use it in assessing risks; (b) the understanding of the internal control environment; (c) the design and performance of controls testing to assess how effective the controls are in preventing or detecting material misstatements; and (d) the design and performance of substantive procedures that include analytical procedures, direct testing of transactions and ending balances (pp. 138-139). Because the internal control is the focus of interest for this demonstration, a separate section will discuss it. The substantive procedures include analytical procedures, the testing of transactions, and the testing of the ending balances on the statements. Analytical procedures consist of an analysis and evaluation of the information present in the financial statements, and a review of the relationship between financial and nonfinancial information. The assumption behind the analytical procedures is that the relationship and trend of the financial information is expected to follow the historical data and projections of the business and in contrary situation evidence must be obtained to support the reasonability of the changes (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 141). Different techniques are use during the analytical procedures. From simple verification of a number to complicated mathematical models, such the comparison of cumulative expenses and revenues with prior years to find significant differences, the use of multiple regression model to estimate revenues by using economic and industry data, and ratio analysis and its comparison with other businesses in the same industry (Whittington Pany, 2004 (p. 141). The testing procedures seek to prove the occurrence and correct recognition of transactions, and prove of existence and misstatements on what the ending balances represent. The substantive testing procedures are performed as an interim mode before year-end, and then after the business year-end. The level of risk established by the auditors during the overall business assessment guides the extent of the substantive audit procedures. The greater the risk of material misstatement the greater the needed extent of substantive procedures (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 139), but always keeping under evaluation the cost-benefit relation of increasing the procedures to perform. Among the most common test performed in an audit process, Whittington and Pany (2004) summarized the following: Accounting System: Comparison-Agreeing amounts from different internal records. Documentary evidence: Tracing-Establishing the completeness of transaction processing by following a transaction forward through the accounting records. Vouching-Establishing the existence or occurrence of recorded transactions by following a transaction back to supporting documents forms a subsequent processing step. Inspection-Reading or point-by-point review of a document or record (the terms examine, review, read, and scan are used to describe the inspection technique). Reconciliation-Establishing agreement between two sets of independently maintained but related records. Third-party representation: Confirmation and evaluating a response from a debtor, creditor, or other party in reply to a request for information about a particular item affecting the financial statements. Physical evidence: Physical examination-viewing physical evidence of an asset. Observation-viewing a client activity. Computations: Reperformance-repeating a client activity. This may include operations such as footing (providing the total of a vertical column of figures); cross footing (proving the total of a horizontal row of figures); and extending (re-computing by multiplication). Data interrelationships: Analytical procedures-Evaluation of financial information made by a study of expected relationships among financial and nonfinancial data. Client representations: Inquires-questions directed toward appropriate client personnel. According to Whittington and Pany (2004), auditors also collect evidence from some subjective areas such as the accounting estimates, the fair market value measurement and disclosures, and transactions with related parties (pp. 146-148). After the development of audit procedures auditors test for existence or occurrence to search for misstatements and completeness searching for understatement, from transactions start to finish, and they test the accounting system from source documents to journals to ledgers. (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 195). The audit program includes two main parts, the assessment of the effectiveness of the client internal controls, and substantive testing. Normally the system portion of an audit program is divided by cycle such as revenue, purchasing and payments, production, payroll, investing, and financing (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 196). Audit Risk The risk concept is use in different disciplines for different purposes. A simple definition of the concept is that: risk is the level of exposure to the chance that some event happens. The event might be beneficial or prejudicial, or might have subsequent implications to other situations or process. Therefore, in business there is a risk of losing money, a risk of fraud, and a risk of misstatement the financial information. As consequence, business and individuals manage risk and the level of exposure to specific risk according to their judgment. The audit process involves the management of risk in different areas with the goal to reduce it to the minimum level possible. Whittington and Pany (2004) introduced some of the risks concepts such as: business risk, the risk associated with a companys survival and profitability (p. 6). Information risk, the risk that the information used to assess business risk is not accurate (p. 6). Audit risk, the risk that the auditors may unknowingly fail to appropriately modify the opinion on financial statements that are materially misstated (p. 35). Inherent risk, the possibility of a material misstatement of an assertion before considering the clients internal control (p.128). Control risk, the risk that a material misstatement will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis by the clients internal control (p. 129) Detection risk, the risk that the auditors will fail to detect the misstatement with their audit procedures (p. 129). Within the audit risk, auditors assess the risk level of occurrence of the different form of misstatement of financial statement, such as errors, fraud, and illegal acts. In measuring audit risk auditors use the following model: AR = IR x CR x DR Where: AR = Audit risk, IR = Inherent risk, CR = Control risk, and DR = Detection risk. (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 130) Additionally, because the auditors are expose to some legal responsibility and are subject to be sued by any clients stakeholder, they have to take in consideration the reputation of the management, financial strength, and other financial rating to assess the overall risk or engagement risk of the association with that particular business (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 174). The process of planning the audit involves the understanding of the client and its environment, an overall audit strategy, and the risk assessment of financial statements material misstatement. Therefore, auditors seek to understand the nature of the client and accounting polices, the industry, regulations and external factors affecting the client, the clients objectives, strategies, and related business risk, how the client measure and review performance, and the internal control environment. (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 179-180). Consequently, auditors use different sources to obtain the client overall understanding. That includes electronic research tools, visit to different plant or location of the client, and some analytical procedures. (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 181-183). A Companys internal control consists of the policies and procedures established to provide reasonable assurance that the objectives of the company will be achieved; including the clients internal control, they could identify areas of strength as well as of weakness. The stronger the internal control, the less testing of financial statement account balances required by the auditors. For any significant account or any phase of financial operation in which controls were weak, the auditors expanded the nature and extent of their tests of the account balance. With the increased reliance on sampling and internal control, professional standards began to emphasize limitations on auditors ability to detect fraud. The profession recognized that audits designed to discover fraud would be too costly. Good internal control and surety bonds were recognized as better fraud protection techniques than audits. (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 8) The assessment of inherent risk involves considering the likelihood that material misstatement in financial statement will result, and each risk related to the management assertions. At this stage, auditors identify what it is not correct or the significant risk by area and based on that assessment they adjust their approach, modifying the nature, timing, and extent of the audit procedures (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 188-189). Audit Evidence Evidence is all data and information gathered by the auditors to support auditors conclusions. The importance of the evidence is that audit risk is reduced by gathering audit evidence (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 127) and when the risk is high more evidence is necessary as well as the increasing the coverage of audit procedures. According to Whittington and Pany (2004), evidence need to be collected for each financial statement assertion sufficiently to support their opinion. As issued in the Statement of Auditing Standard (SAS) 31 about evidential matter, the financial statement assertions are the following: Existence or occurrence-assets, liabilities, and owners equity reflected in the financial statements exist; the recorded transactions have occurred. Completeness-all transactions, assets, liabilities, and owners equity that should be presented in the financial statements are included. Rights and obligations-the client has rights to assets and obligation to pay liabilities that are included in the financial statements. Valuation or allocation-assets, liabilities, owners equity, revenues, and expenses are presented at amounts that are determined in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. Presentation and disclosure-accounts are described and classified in the financial statements in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles, and all material disclosures are provides. (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 174) The above assertions are the base for the risk assessment performed by auditors, and to determine misstatements possible to occur and consequently decide the audit procedure to exercise. Guidelines are included in the SAS 31 regarding what sufficient competent evidence is, which relates to the quantity of evidence auditors should collect. The competence of the evidence is determined by the combined condition of relevant and valid. That means that it most related to the assertion, and that it is dependent on the circumstance in which it is obtained. The reliability or validity of the evidence increase when is received from independent sources, when is produced by an effective internal control, gathered directly by the auditor, is documented, obtained from original documents, and when is received from more than one source (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 132). Different types of audit evidence is obtained by the auditors such as accounting information system, internal and external documentary evidence, third-party representations such as confirmations, reports, and lawyers letters; physical evidence such as fixed assets and inventory, computations re-performance, data interrelationships of financial and nonfinancial information, and client representations oral and in writing (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 131-137). An important supporting evidence of the audit report and conclusions is the audit documentation, which is required by the SAS 96 for the auditors understanding and review of the audit work, the nature of audit work performed, and to show the agreement between the records and the financial statements. The working papers have some important functions: (a) are the best way to assign and coordinate the auditing work, (b) help audit managers and partners in the supervision and reviewing or the work of assistants, (c) support the audit reports, (d) documents the auditors compliance with GAAS, and (d) assist in the conduction of future audit to the client (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 148-150). The working papers are confidential and unrestricted documentation owned by the auditors, principally because they represent the major factor to use in case of negligence charges. Part of the working paper are the administrative working papers, the working trial balance, separate schedules, adjusting journal entries and supporting schedules, and analysis of ledgers accounts such as a reconciliation, computational working paper, corroborating documents. They are filed in two major groups, permanent file, and current files (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 151-158). Audit Sampling As a large-scale corporate grow rapidly auditors began to sample selected transactions, rather than study all transactions. Auditors and business managers gradually came to accept the proposition that careful examination of relatively few selected transactions would give a cost-effective, reliable indication of the accuracy of other similar transactions (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 8). As explained before, auditors need sufficient and competent evidence to support their conclusions, but because business grows involving high volume of economic events and transactions, they need to rely in sampling testing. Audit sampling can be statistical or no statistical, involves the selection of a sample from a group of items and the use of the sample characteristics presuming that the auditors can draw inferences about the whole population. (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 309). From the previous sampling introduction, we have the sample risk that is the risk that the auditors conclusion based on a sample might be different if they examine the whole population. According to Whittington and Pany (2004) sampling risk is reduced by increasing the size of the sample (p. 309) or by auditing the whole population. Auditors use statistical and no statistical sampling to perform a random selection, which involve that every item in the population has an equal chance of being selected for inclusion in the sample. Different techniques are used such as random number tables, random number generators, systematic selection, haphazard selection, block selection, and stratification (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 310-313). There is a sample risk for test of controls in which auditors face the risk of assessing control risk too high, which is related to efficiency, or too low based on the operating effectiveness of the control. The AICAP guide suggest the statistical sample sizes for tests of controls at 5 percent risk of assessing control risk too low, providing the following tolerable deviation rate per assessed level of control risk: for low 2 7%, for moderate 6 12 %, for slightly below the maximum 11 20%, and for maximum level of control risk they recommend to omit test (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 316-320). Besides sampling, auditors became aware of the importance of effective internal auditing. Following section presents a discussion about internal auditing. Internal Auditing The internal auditing developed rapidly during the decade of 1930s generating the foundation of the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA), which is an organization with local chapter in the main cities worldwide. The IIA defines internal adducting as follows: An independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organizations operations. It helps an organization accomplish its objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance process. (The Institute of Internal Auditors [IIA], 2008) Internal auditors are an important part of the internal control environment of entities, representing the highest level of control that measure and evaluate the effectiveness of other controls. Additionally to the financial controls, the internal auditors scope includes the evaluation and testing of control effectiveness, and other assurance and consulting services to the management. Some companies have focus on outsourcing the internal audit functions, which is also provided by CPA firms as an extended audit service and according to the AICPA guiding. However, opposition to the participation of accounting firms exist under the argument of possible conflicts of interest having then as part of the internal control when they also audit the company. The IIA have issued the standards for the practice of internal auditing with the following purpose: To delineate basic principles that represent the practice of internal auditing. Provide a framework for performing and promoting a broad range of value-added internal auditing. Establish the basis for the evaluation of internal audit performance. To foster improved organizational processes and operations. The auditing standards of the IIA includes two parts, the first is the attribute standards that state basic requirements for the practice of internal auditing. According with this attribute, organizations should define in a formal document or internal audit charter, the purpose, authority, and responsibility of the internal audit, and the nature of assurance and consulting services that the internal auditors will provide. Additionally, the chapter should include recognition of the definition of internal auditing, the code of ethics, and the auditing standards (IIA, 2008). The standards also state the independence and objectivity condition for internal auditors during the performance of their work. The need of freedom from conditions, bias, and subordination of judgment, or conflict of interest that impairs their ability to perform objectively, is rigorously presented in the standards. Additionally, the competencies, knowledge, and skills that an auditor must possess are described as well as the due professional care requirement for the performance of the engagement as important elements of the IIA standards. Finally, the attribute standards set requirements for continuing professional development and quality assurance for the internal audit activity (IIA, 2008). The second part of the IIA standards covers the Concepts and Theories of Auditing Concepts and Theories of Auditing Auditing has been present for years in different stage of development following the evolution of accounting. Starting since the epoch when the records were approved after a public reading, to the era when governments officials were measured by their honesty. Followed by the times of the industrial revolution were the ownership of companies started separating from management; when owners required more protection of their investments increasing the use of auditors, consequently; to the times were an auditor was always searching for frauds or errors (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 7) and then to ascertain the actual financial condition and earnings of an enterprise (Montgomery, 1913, p. 9). However, the acceptance of auditing as an academic discipline is not old and just after the development of different concepts and techniques within the audit model such as the use of sampling, the study of the internal control environment, and the risk assessment, is when more focus to the theoretical and conceptual framework of auditing it is been devoted. Andrew Sayer (1992) discussed the concept of theories in social science from the perspective of theory as an ordering-framework (p. 50), indicating that theory allows the use of the observed data and their relationships to predict and explain empirical events. Additionally Cooper and Schindler (1998) define theory as a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts) (p. 47). Another concept is expressed by Singleton and Straits (2005) explaining theory as a set of interconnected propositions (p. 19). The success in the explanations or predictions of any phenomena depends on the level that the theory holds and do not fails fitting in the situation, and the challenge is to perfect the process of matching theory and fact (Cooper and Schindler (1998). Different authors have started the development of the audit theory such as Mautz and Sharaf (1961) with their publication titled The Philosophy of Auditing; also Tom Lee (1986) with his approach in the book Company Auditing, and later David Flint (1988) with his book Philosophy and principles of auditing (as cited in Moizer, 1989). The auditing analysis in this demonstration will be framed on the postulates proposed by David Flint (1988) as a foundation for the theory of auditing. Flint (1988) stated that there is a matter of public accountability demanding an independent audit for its demonstration with clear definition and intention, based on evidence that only skilled auditors gather, measure it, and compare it against the standards, which generates economic or social benefit (as cited in Moizer, 1989). Following are the seven postulates or assumptions stated by Flint (1988): There is a relationship of accountability or a situation of public accountability. Accountability cannot be demonstrated without an audit. An audit requires independence and freedom. The subject matter of audit is susceptible to verification by evidence. Auditors are skilled judges who are able to measure and compare actual performance against standards of accountability. The meaning, significance, and intention of statements to be audited must be clear. An audit produces an economic or social benefit. (Flink, 1989) Whenever an economic relationship exists one of the parties owe a duty of an acceptable accountability, consequently audits are voluntary, imposed for the health of the relationship. There are also audit related to the interest of the public in matters of the society institutions. As expressed by Whittington and Pany (2004) dependable information is essential to the very existence of our society (p. 1). They explained the social need for audit and professionals who can attest that the reported information is fair respect to the reality for purpose of allocating resources for the production of services and goods based on reliable financial information (p. 1). Normally the financial and economic aspects of the related subject matter are complex, not physically accessible, or have the level of significance that necessary demand an audit to accept the accountability. No all investors or stakeholders of an entity understand the complexity of the business and financial environment, or are near to the place were their resources are to oversee for accountability. The credibility of the information is important and the preferable form of obtaining credible information to rely on is by using independent auditors to perform an audit. That reduce the business risk that relates to the permanence and profits of the company, and the information risk that the financial information used to make a decision is materially misstated (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 6). Therefore, if the audit must add credibility it must be performed independently and without bias or prejudice. Audit is subject to verification and that is possible only if sufficient evidential matter of the audit is gathered. Additionally, some standards of accountability and performance need to be in place to easy the auditors measurement. Therefore, the parties involved must agree on their acceptable standards. The auditing community has set some professional guidance as a form of general accepted practiced standards. For an audit to add value to the financial information, the purpose of the information should be clear, and the findings effectively communicated. The audit should be performed only when its benefits weigh more than the costs. As a consequence auditors should be aware of the cost of collecting evidence especially in situation were the risk is high. The practice of auditing auditors agree on an attest engagement in which they issue or does issue an examination, a review, or an agreed-upon procedures report on subject matter or an assertion about subject matter that is the responsibility of another party (e.g., management) (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 2). In an examination of financial statement, referred to as an audit the standards may be the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), and the auditors collect sufficient evidence to attest about how fair is the information in the financial statement respect to the GAAP. However, here are three types of audits: (a) audits of financial statements, (b) compliance audits, and (c) operational audits. Financial audits determine if the statements were prepared according with GAAP. Compliance audit verifies if the company had complies with law, regulations or polices and procedures. Finally, operational audits review the effectiveness and efficiency of particular unit of an organization (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 11). Relative to the public accounting standards, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) has developed the framework for the general accepted auditing standards (GAAS), which are the fundamentals principles of independent auditing in the U. S. The framework is divided in three major areas that are summarized as follow: General standards. A professional possessing adequate technical training and proficiency, independent in mental attitude and free from bias and with professional care planning and performing diligently, perform the audit. Standards of field work. The audit should be adequate planned and the staff properly supervised. Auditor should acquire sufficient understanding of the internal control environment to be able to determine the weak areas, and gather sufficient competent evidence to support their conclusions. Standards of reporting. The final report should state if the statements are consistent with GAAP and if necessary indicate those circumstances departing from GAAP, include adequate informative disclosure, and includes the opinion of the auditors about the financial statements. Likewise, the AICPA has issued a series of auditing standards on auditing procedure, auditing and accounting guides, and auditing statements of position, to help auditor in the fulfillment of their responsibility of detecting misstatement (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 34-35). Auditing involve a serious processes that expose auditors to a different situations in which they need to exercise professional ethics. Those moral principles and values leading decisions and actions of the profession of auditing are provided by the AICPA in the Code of Professional Conduct, and by the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) Code of Ethics. Normally auditors are involved in a decision process of ethical dimension. CPAs decisions during performing their duties can affect thousands of investors and their resources; therefore, they need to measure the implication of their decisions. Additionally, as Whittington and Pany (2004) indicated, what is considered unethical in a particular society is not specifically prohibited (p. 11), giving relevance and support to the need for the establishment of those principles and values in the accounting and auditing profession. The public accounting, as well as the rest of professions, has the following characteristics: (a) their responsibility to serve the public with independence and due care with fairness and free from bias. (b) Involves a complex body of knowledge that includes different authoritative pronouncements of standards and principles governing the profession and the financial reports due to the need of technical competency. (c) Has establishes some standard of admission to the profession that each CPA is required to meet. In addition (d), need public confidence to be successful (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 61-62). The AICPA leads public accountants to recognize their responsibility to the public in general, to their clients, and to the profession. The section one of the code of conduct describes the organization and CPAs principles of responsibilities, public interest, integrity, objectivity and independence, due care, and scope and nature of services. The section two depicts the institutes rules that are compounded by the following: independence, integrity and objectivity, general standards, compliance with standards, accounting principles, confidential client information, contingent fees, acts discreditable, advertising and other forms of solicitation, commissions and referral fees, and form of organization and name (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 63-83). Similarly, the IIA has their own code of ethics divided in three main sections, an introductory section, principles, and rules of conduct. Their principles apply to the profession and practice of the internal auditing, and include integrity, objectivity confidentiality, and competency. The IIA rules on conduct include integrity, objectivity, confidentiality, and competency (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 83-84). The IIA is the organization that provides the standards for the professional practice of internal auditing. As it can be deduced from the previous summaries, both institutes the IACPA and the IIA require high level of self-discipline and commitment to a honorable professional behavior, integrating similar principles of integrity, objectivity, and competence. Their rules differ in the fact that internal auditors perform internally; public accountants attest on the financial statements to the company as outsiders performing professionally to honor the public trust. However, the concept of independence is common to both ramification of auditing because it refers to the ability to maintain and objective and impartial mental attitude (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 66), and without of conflict of interest. After the previous review of the auditing theory and how CPAs support it with a professional framework that includes principles, ethical codes, and general accepted standards for the auditing practice, the following section depicts a discussion of audit procedures as well as an introduction of important concepts that are fundamental part of the theory of auditing and the auditing practice. The Audit Procedures The ultimate product after the performance of an audit is the issuance of a report indicating if the financial statements audited comply with GAAP. Sufficient evidence must support the audit report and such evidence is gathered and documented by exercising rigorous procedures that, among other important goals, help the auditors in assessing the risk of misstatement. According to Whittington and Pany (2004), audit procedures involve: (a) the understanding of the client, the business, and industry to use it in assessing risks; (b) the understanding of the internal control environment; (c) the design and performance of controls testing to assess how effective the controls are in preventing or detecting material misstatements; and (d) the design and performance of substantive procedures that include analytical procedures, direct testing of transactions and ending balances (pp. 138-139). Because the internal control is the focus of interest for this demonstration, a separate section will discuss it. The substantive procedures include analytical procedures, the testing of transactions, and the testing of the ending balances on the statements. Analytical procedures consist of an analysis and evaluation of the information present in the financial statements, and a review of the relationship between financial and nonfinancial information. The assumption behind the analytical procedures is that the relationship and trend of the financial information is expected to follow the historical data and projections of the business and in contrary situation evidence must be obtained to support the reasonability of the changes (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 141). Different techniques are use during the analytical procedures. From simple verification of a number to complicated mathematical models, such the comparison of cumulative expenses and revenues with prior years to find significant differences, the use of multiple regression model to estimate revenues by using economic and industry data, and ratio analysis and its comparison with other businesses in the same industry (Whittington Pany, 2004 (p. 141). The testing procedures seek to prove the occurrence and correct recognition of transactions, and prove of existence and misstatements on what the ending balances represent. The substantive testing procedures are performed as an interim mode before year-end, and then after the business year-end. The level of risk established by the auditors during the overall business assessment guides the extent of the substantive audit procedures. The greater the risk of material misstatement the greater the needed extent of substantive procedures (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 139), but always keeping under evaluation the cost-benefit relation of increasing the procedures to perform. Among the most common test performed in an audit process, Whittington and Pany (2004) summarized the following: Accounting System: Comparison-Agreeing amounts from different internal records. Documentary evidence: Tracing-Establishing the completeness of transaction processing by following a transaction forward through the accounting records. Vouching-Establishing the existence or occurrence of recorded transactions by following a transaction back to supporting documents forms a subsequent processing step. Inspection-Reading or point-by-point review of a document or record (the terms examine, review, read, and scan are used to describe the inspection technique). Reconciliation-Establishing agreement between two sets of independently maintained but related records. Third-party representation: Confirmation and evaluating a response from a debtor, creditor, or other party in reply to a request for information about a particular item affecting the financial statements. Physical evidence: Physical examination-viewing physical evidence of an asset. Observation-viewing a client activity. Computations: Reperformance-repeating a client activity. This may include operations such as footing (providing the total of a vertical column of figures); cross footing (proving the total of a horizontal row of figures); and extending (re-computing by multiplication). Data interrelationships: Analytical procedures-Evaluation of financial information made by a study of expected relationships among financial and nonfinancial data. Client representations: Inquires-questions directed toward appropriate client personnel. According to Whittington and Pany (2004), auditors also collect evidence from some subjective areas such as the accounting estimates, the fair market value measurement and disclosures, and transactions with related parties (pp. 146-148). After the development of audit procedures auditors test for existence or occurrence to search for misstatements and completeness searching for understatement, from transactions start to finish, and they test the accounting system from source documents to journals to ledgers. (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 195). The audit program includes two main parts, the assessment of the effectiveness of the client internal controls, and substantive testing. Normally the system portion of an audit program is divided by cycle such as revenue, purchasing and payments, production, payroll, investing, and financing (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 196). Audit Risk The risk concept is use in different disciplines for different purposes. A simple definition of the concept is that: risk is the level of exposure to the chance that some event happens. The event might be beneficial or prejudicial, or might have subsequent implications to other situations or process. Therefore, in business there is a risk of losing money, a risk of fraud, and a risk of misstatement the financial information. As consequence, business and individuals manage risk and the level of exposure to specific risk according to their judgment. The audit process involves the management of risk in different areas with the goal to reduce it to the minimum level possible. Whittington and Pany (2004) introduced some of the risks concepts such as: business risk, the risk associated with a companys survival and profitability (p. 6). Information risk, the risk that the information used to assess business risk is not accurate (p. 6). Audit risk, the risk that the auditors may unknowingly fail to appropriately modify the opinion on financial statements that are materially misstated (p. 35). Inherent risk, the possibility of a material misstatement of an assertion before considering the clients internal control (p.128). Control risk, the risk that a material misstatement will not be prevented or detected on a timely basis by the clients internal control (p. 129) Detection risk, the risk that the auditors will fail to detect the misstatement with their audit procedures (p. 129). Within the audit risk, auditors assess the risk level of occurrence of the different form of misstatement of financial statement, such as errors, fraud, and illegal acts. In measuring audit risk auditors use the following model: AR = IR x CR x DR Where: AR = Audit risk, IR = Inherent risk, CR = Control risk, and DR = Detection risk. (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 130) Additionally, because the auditors are expose to some legal responsibility and are subject to be sued by any clients stakeholder, they have to take in consideration the reputation of the management, financial strength, and other financial rating to assess the overall risk or engagement risk of the association with that particular business (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 174). The process of planning the audit involves the understanding of the client and its environment, an overall audit strategy, and the risk assessment of financial statements material misstatement. Therefore, auditors seek to understand the nature of the client and accounting polices, the industry, regulations and external factors affecting the client, the clients objectives, strategies, and related business risk, how the client measure and review performance, and the internal control environment. (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 179-180). Consequently, auditors use different sources to obtain the client overall understanding. That includes electronic research tools, visit to different plant or location of the client, and some analytical procedures. (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 181-183). A Companys internal control consists of the policies and procedures established to provide reasonable assurance that the objectives of the company will be achieved; including the clients internal control, they could identify areas of strength as well as of weakness. The stronger the internal control, the less testing of financial statement account balances required by the auditors. For any significant account or any phase of financial operation in which controls were weak, the auditors expanded the nature and extent of their tests of the account balance. With the increased reliance on sampling and internal control, professional standards began to emphasize limitations on auditors ability to detect fraud. The profession recognized that audits designed to discover fraud would be too costly. Good internal control and surety bonds were recognized as better fraud protection techniques than audits. (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 8) The assessment of inherent risk involves considering the likelihood that material misstatement in financial statement will result, and each risk related to the management assertions. At this stage, auditors identify what it is not correct or the significant risk by area and based on that assessment they adjust their approach, modifying the nature, timing, and extent of the audit procedures (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 188-189). Audit Evidence Evidence is all data and information gathered by the auditors to support auditors conclusions. The importance of the evidence is that audit risk is reduced by gathering audit evidence (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 127) and when the risk is high more evidence is necessary as well as the increasing the coverage of audit procedures. According to Whittington and Pany (2004), evidence need to be collected for each financial statement assertion sufficiently to support their opinion. As issued in the Statement of Auditing Standard (SAS) 31 about evidential matter, the financial statement assertions are the following: Existence or occurrence-assets, liabilities, and owners equity reflected in the financial statements exist; the recorded transactions have occurred. Completeness-all transactions, assets, liabilities, and owners equity that should be presented in the financial statements are included. Rights and obligations-the client has rights to assets and obligation to pay liabilities that are included in the financial statements. Valuation or allocation-assets, liabilities, owners equity, revenues, and expenses are presented at amounts that are determined in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. Presentation and disclosure-accounts are described and classified in the financial statements in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles, and all material disclosures are provides. (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 174) The above assertions are the base for the risk assessment performed by auditors, and to determine misstatements possible to occur and consequently decide the audit procedure to exercise. Guidelines are included in the SAS 31 regarding what sufficient competent evidence is, which relates to the quantity of evidence auditors should collect. The competence of the evidence is determined by the combined condition of relevant and valid. That means that it most related to the assertion, and that it is dependent on the circumstance in which it is obtained. The reliability or validity of the evidence increase when is received from independent sources, when is produced by an effective internal control, gathered directly by the auditor, is documented, obtained from original documents, and when is received from more than one source (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 132). Different types of audit evidence is obtained by the auditors such as accounting information system, internal and external documentary evidence, third-party representations such as confirmations, reports, and lawyers letters; physical evidence such as fixed assets and inventory, computations re-performance, data interrelationships of financial and nonfinancial information, and client representations oral and in writing (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 131-137). An important supporting evidence of the audit report and conclusions is the audit documentation, which is required by the SAS 96 for the auditors understanding and review of the audit work, the nature of audit work performed, and to show the agreement between the records and the financial statements. The working papers have some important functions: (a) are the best way to assign and coordinate the auditing work, (b) help audit managers and partners in the supervision and reviewing or the work of assistants, (c) support the audit reports, (d) documents the auditors compliance with GAAS, and (d) assist in the conduction of future audit to the client (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 148-150). The working papers are confidential and unrestricted documentation owned by the auditors, principally because they represent the major factor to use in case of negligence charges. Part of the working paper are the administrative working papers, the working trial balance, separate schedules, adjusting journal entries and supporting schedules, and analysis of ledgers accounts such as a reconciliation, computational working paper, corroborating documents. They are filed in two major groups, permanent file, and current files (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 151-158). Audit Sampling As a large-scale corporate grow rapidly auditors began to sample selected transactions, rather than study all transactions. Auditors and business managers gradually came to accept the proposition that careful examination of relatively few selected transactions would give a cost-effective, reliable indication of the accuracy of other similar transactions (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 8). As explained before, auditors need sufficient and competent evidence to support their conclusions, but because business grows involving high volume of economic events and transactions, they need to rely in sampling testing. Audit sampling can be statistical or no statistical, involves the selection of a sample from a group of items and the use of the sample characteristics presuming that the auditors can draw inferences about the whole population. (Whittington Pany, 2004, p. 309). From the previous sampling introduction, we have the sample risk that is the risk that the auditors conclusion based on a sample might be different if they examine the whole population. According to Whittington and Pany (2004) sampling risk is reduced by increasing the size of the sample (p. 309) or by auditing the whole population. Auditors use statistical and no statistical sampling to perform a random selection, which involve that every item in the population has an equal chance of being selected for inclusion in the sample. Different techniques are used such as random number tables, random number generators, systematic selection, haphazard selection, block selection, and stratification (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 310-313). There is a sample risk for test of controls in which auditors face the risk of assessing control risk too high, which is related to efficiency, or too low based on the operating effectiveness of the control. The AICAP guide suggest the statistical sample sizes for tests of controls at 5 percent risk of assessing control risk too low, providing the following tolerable deviation rate per assessed level of control risk: for low 2 7%, for moderate 6 12 %, for slightly below the maximum 11 20%, and for maximum level of control risk they recommend to omit test (Whittington Pany, 2004, pp. 316-320). Besides sampling, auditors became aware of the importance of effective internal auditing. Following section presents a discussion about internal auditing. Internal Auditing The internal auditing developed rapidly during the decade of 1930s generating the foundation of the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA), which is an organization with local chapter in the main cities worldwide. The IIA defines internal adducting as follows: An independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organizations operations. It helps an organization accomplish its objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance process. (The Institute of Internal Auditors [IIA], 2008) Internal auditors are an important part of the internal control environment of entities, representing the highest level of control that measure and evaluate the effectiveness of other controls. Additionally to the financial controls, the internal auditors scope includes the evaluation and testing of control effectiveness, and other assurance and consulting services to the management. Some companies have focus on outsourcing the internal audit functions, which is also provided by CPA firms as an extended audit service and according to the AICPA guiding. However, opposition to the participation of accounting firms exist under the argument of possible conflicts of interest having then as part of the internal control when they also audit the company. The IIA have issued the standards for the practice of internal auditing with the following purpose: To delineate basic principles that represent the practice of internal auditing. Provide a framework for performing and promoting a broad range of value-added internal auditing. Establish the basis for the evaluation of internal audit performance. To foster improved organizational processes and operations. The auditing standards of the IIA includes two parts, the first is the attribute standards that state basic requirements for the practice of internal auditing. According with this attribute, organizations should define in a formal document or internal audit charter, the purpose, authority, and responsibility of the internal audit, and the nature of assurance and consulting services that the internal auditors will provide. Additionally, the chapter should include recognition of the definition of internal auditing, the code of ethics, and the auditing standards (IIA, 2008). The standards also state the independence and objectivity condition for internal auditors during the performance of their work. The need of freedom from conditions, bias, and subordination of judgment, or conflict of interest that impairs their ability to perform objectively, is rigorously presented in the standards. Additionally, the competencies, knowledge, and skills that an auditor must possess are described as well as the due professional care requirement for the performance of the engagement as important elements of the IIA standards. Finally, the attribute standards set requirements for continuing professional development and quality assurance for the internal audit activity (IIA, 2008). The second part of the IIA standards covers the